Homestead Act
Homestead Act
Homestead Act which was signed by President Abraham Lincoln was one the most important act regarding US public land policy which led to westward movement and apparently provided opportunity for landless Americans who were mainly freed slaves or farmers who worked on others’ lands or indentured servants. The big dream of vast nation lying between two oceans was fulfilling by most vulnerable and weakest class however today, many historians view the Homestead Act as a shining success. Actually it worked but there are some vague aspects about this policy. What was the defect of this policy? Who did benefit from it? What was the real purpose of this act? The Homestead Act was a US Federal Law which was passed in 1862 by Congress and signed by President Abraham Lincoln and became law on January 1, 1863. “It was one of the nation’s first major domestic policies.”(Michael Sherraden, 2005, p.20) It ended more than 70 years quarrels about the disposition of public lands. As states along the East Coast were over populated this act encouraged Americans move toward West. “The act offered settlers up to 160 acres (65 hectares) of land for only a small fee. In return the settlers had to live on and improve the property.” (Jason Porterfield, 2005, p.4) After five years the land belonged to who could build a house on it, dig a well and fence a distinctive part and live there. But before that they had to file an application and file for deed of title. Anyone, including freed slaves, who had never taken up arms against the U.S. Government, could file an application and improvements to a local land office. Eventually 1.6 million homesteads were granted and 270,000,000 acres (1,100,000 km²) were privatized between 1862 and 1986, a total of 10% of all lands in the United States. (Wikipedia) The congressmen predicted rich farms and towns which are linked to the East Coast by ratifying Homestead Act. Actually it was an opportunity for farmers, freed slaves and immigrants to own a land but there were so many difficulties such as very hot summers and very cold winters, isolation from family and attack of grasshoppers and so on and so forth. As Tina William Shanks asserted in his essay The Homestead Act: A Major asset-Building policy in American History, this act is important for several reasons. It points out consensus which is derived from dialogs about rights of citizenship, how the lands should be divided and who can own those lands. Moreover, it equilibrates other policies and economic changes which were taking place in late 19th century. Historical Background of Homestead Act Between 1781 and 1853 US government purchased public domain which included all land owned by the federal government. This land was not a part of original thirteen colonies. The totality of public domain excluding Alaska was almost 1.5 billion acres obtained through state cessions, Louisiana Purchase, Red River Basin, cession from Spain, Oregon compromise, Mexican cessions, purchase from Texas and the Gadsden Purchase. So the importance of governmental policy came to the light because of administrating this public land. (Gates, 1970) Soon after American independence initial land policies came to being. The Land Ordinance (1875) set up a surveying system to estimate territories and divide them for public sale. North West Ordinance was passed by Congress to complete the former act. But an important question was remained. What is the best way to distribute lands? As usual rich people got the benefits. As a solution politicians like Thomas Jefferson, William Henry Harrison and Albert Gallatin believed that land should be sold in smaller amount with lower price to maintain economic democracy. After new government was bankrupt one of the first solutions was to sell the public domain. Actually it was a means for government to generate revenue rather than an encouragement for settlers. But by 1832, after President Andrew Jackson had paid off the national debt, raising taxes was not a priority anymore. Political concerns of Western states led to shifting balance from vast landowners toward smaller landowners and independent farms. The Preemption Act of 1841 allowed squatters with an established claim guaranteed permission to purchase their land at the minimum price of 1.25 dollar per acre once the area opened for surveying and settlement. The Graduation Act of 1854 reduced the minimum fixed price from 1.25 dollar to 1 dollar per acre after 10 years, and for plots of land not purchased for 30 years, prices as low as 12.5 cents. (Michael Sherraden, 2005, p.23) The out come of these acts was the Homestead Act; however Southern states did not favor such acts because they believed that these kinds of policies destroy economic bases of South which depended upon plantation slavery. As Tina William Shanks says: the shining point of this act was that anybody who was interested in moving to West could apply for public land. Youngsters, adventurers, freed slaves or anybody who had a dream of new life or society had a chance to fulfill his or her dreams. It was a great chance but it was a great risk too. Obtaining title to the land was not a simple or easy job. They needed so much money to do all those process and they had to wait for harvest which some times were poor because of bad weather. Unknown conditions of the Western lands led to the raise of agencies that helped newcomers to find a suitable land and they were paid for their services. Of course many times this act was abused. Many newcomers were given lands which were located in Rocky Mountains and they were not suitable for agriculture. No systematic method used to evaluate claims under the Homestead Act was another fault. “Land offices would rely on affidavits from witnesses that the claimant had lived on the land for the required period of time and made the required improvements. Some of these witnesses were bribed or otherwise collaborated with the claimant.”(Wikipedia) With all advantages and disadvantages Homestead Act was ended by Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1979. After 117 years government concluded that the best use of public domain was to remain under control of government .Just Alaska was an exception until 1986. Defects of Homestead Act Many Americans see the Homestead Act “originally and distinctively American” and believe that it was “the concentrated wisdom of legislation for the settlement of the public lands”. Despite of this point of view this act had some deficiencies which destroy its fame to some extent. Ray Allen Billington and Martin Ridge (American History After 1865: With Questions and Answers) asserted some defects of Homestead Act in this way: a- The law failed to deal with the Great Plains where farmers needed either from 360 to 460 acres they wanted to have an extensive agriculture or from 40 to 60 acres if they wanted to use irrigation. “The serious defect of act was that there were no clearly defined stipulations as to what constituted irrigation.”(Willard W.Cochrane, 1993, p.82 ) b- Homestead Act could not stop speculators who controlled Western best lands. c- The money that speculators gained was so much higher than how much farmers obtained so most farmers had to pay higher prices to acquire western lands. d- Fred Albert Shannon says in his book that one of the Homestead Act failures was to provide means to get poor families to the farms and give them long credit for their needs and give them guidance how to farm. Who got the benefit of Homestead Act? As a result of what I have red and mentioned about this act I believe that government, rich people and farmers and speculators got the bigger portion of benefits rather than immigrant homesteaders. Moving to westward was not such easy. Americans faced with many hardships and many of them lost their life. They had to pass long long vast desert and rocky mountains and fight with famine and diseases, they had to adapt themselves with every bad situation and if they had survived they had encountered with new kinds of difficulties. But government via this policy could conquer the west territories with less harshness. Actually instead of army or government officials people were faced with Indians and gradually west lands were overpopulated by Americans and they were majority. Indeed after filling application immigrants had to pay fee for the land so government got the benefits and after they succeed they were suppose to pay taxes to government. I think heaviest burden was on the shoulder of people but government got more benefit. By Homestead Act West became a market for Eastern products so rich Eastern settlers got some portion of benefits too. Although newcomers after 5 years became an owner and got benefits of cultivation in Western land but the honor of fulfilling such a big dream of vast nation was nominated for grand politicians rather than ordinary people and every body forgot who lost their life in this way. Purposes of Homestead Act The idea of giving land as an opportunity to Americans is the most naïve reason which comes to every body’s mind. Policy makers did so but not for the sake of people. They sold lands to people to “create private property”, ownership and “taxable wealth”. After American independence 13 Eastern states were too crowded so they needed more land. Best choice was the Western lands and a policy like Homestead Act. Also security was an important issue for such a new government with enemies like Britain and Indians. This wave of human could work as a shield against Indians. As they considered themselves as Americans so they would serve US. After independence US need a market for its product and also it needed a strong economy. Homestead Act worked as a market and a field to speared agriculture oriented economy. When they got there they created communities and towns. So as a result industrialization flourished. Smart policy makers needed a notion which creates a feeling of independence with in Americans to make them ready for next big steps toward having a “United States”. So they gave them an opportunity to have a land to feel themselves an owner. By doing this they attained another big goal which was a nation starting from Atlantic Ocean to Pacific Ocean. Generally Homestead Act was an important land policy which did so much and achieved its most important purposes however it had some deficiencies too. Conclusion According to what is discussed about Homestead Act we can conclude that like any other policy or act it has some defects and some significance advantages. But whatever it was it really helped US to survive. There are too many reasons and logic behind this policy but in conclusion I am going to conclude that the main purpose and main motive behind this act was the notion of the city upon hill. American utopia is based on free land. From the moment that immigrants came to the new world they got familiar with the concept that they are blessed by God and He gave them this land as a gift. So from the first moment Americans thought about building a new land and city and supposed this vast continent as the realm of God and their new society. If you look at US history you will find that any other polices which are taken through years had such a goal. After independence was a right moment to fulfilling this big dream little by little. They did so much. They purchased some territories. They excluded Indians from their native lands. Even they went to war with Mexico. They ratified many acts like Homestead Act to tempt people to participate in this huge project. Actually they succeeded. Bibliography Sherraden, M. (2005). Inclusion in the American Dream: Assets, Poverty, and Public Policy . Oxford University Press US. Retrived 5, 10, 2007, from http://books.google.com/books?id=SUGVyYHQyYcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Michael+Sherraden&lr=&sig=bh96Z2vHKF5MOTlfsiCv457ZPNA Porterfield, J. (2005). The Homestead Act of 1862. The Rosen Publishing Group. Retrived, 5, 8, 2007 http://books.google.com/books?id=29YhbyzUkFUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jason+Porterfield&lr=&sig=2r-1sOSnMF8DsARDbjEqNhbfMZs (n.d.). Retrieved 5 ,12, 2007, from www.wikipedia.com Cochrane, W. W. (1993). The Development of American Agriculture. U of Minnesota Press. Retrived, 5, 8, 2007 from http://books.google.com/books?id=gnqxb5vuTEMC&pg=PP1&dq=Willard+W.+Cochrane&lr=&sig=_4GvDGZ8jEPCaaLjqfqzgpTy1oU Billington, R. A. (1981). American History After 1865. Rowman & Littlefield. Ritrived, 5, 6,2007 from http://books.google.com/books?id=X9FWZLCfi4gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=American+History+After+1865&lr=&sig=34I_nmc395QEzxI0bAo9gS7XLTg
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Elizabeth Cady Stanton She was born Johnstown, New York (November 12, 1815).Elizabeth was an American social activist and leader of the early woman’s movements. When she was a child five of her sibling died in early life. “Daniel Cady, Stanton's father, was a prominent attorney who served one term in the United States Congress (Federalist; 1814-1817) and later became both a circuit court judge and, in 1847, a New York Supreme Court justice.” Actually she got familiar with law by her father. “Stanton's mother, Margaret Livingston Cady, a descendant of early Dutch settlers, was the daughter of Colonel James Livingston, an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolution.” “Unlike many women of her era, Stanton was educated. She attended Johnstown Academy, where she studied Latin, Greek and mathematics until the age of 16. At the Academy, she enjoyed being in co-educational classes where she could compete intellectually and academically with boys her age and older.” She was very successful in her education and won many awards. She felt sexual discrimination for the first time when she was graduating from Johnstown Academy. Because Union college just was accepting men so she went to Tory. When she was studying there, she was influenced by Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelical preacher and central figure in the revivalist movement. After hearing Finney speak, Stanton became terrified at the possibility of her own damnation: "Fear of judgment seized my soul. Visions of the lost haunted my dreams. Mental anguish prostrated my health. Dethronement of my reason was apprehended by my friends." “As a young woman, Elizabeth Cady met Henry Brewster Stanton through her early involvement in the temperance and the abolition movements. Henry Stanton was an acquaintance of Elizabeth Cady's cousin, an abolitionist and member of the "Six”. Stanton was a journalist, an antislavery orator, and, after his marriage to Elizabeth Cady, an attorney. Despite Daniel Cady's reservations, the couple was married in 1840 and the result was six children, carefully planned, between 1842 and 1856.” After their honeymoon in Europe, the Stantons moved into the Cady household in Johnstown, New York. “Henry Stanton studied law under his father-in-law until 1843, when the Stantons moved to Boston, Massachusetts, where Henry joined a law firm. While living in Boston, Elizabeth thoroughly enjoyed the social, political, and intellectual stimulation that came with a constant round of abolitionist gatherings and meetings. Here she enjoyed the company of and was influenced by such people as Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison, Louisa May Alcott, Robert Lowell, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, among others. Throughout her marriage and eventual widowhood, Stanton took her husband's surname as part of her own, signing herself Elizabeth Cady Stanton or E. Cady Stanton, but she refused to be addressed as Mrs. Henry B. Stanton. Asserting that women were individual persons, she stated that, "[t]he custom of calling women Mrs. John This and Mrs. Tom That and colored men Sambo and Zip Coon, is founded on the principle that white men are lords of all." [26] She further refused to include the promise "to obey" her husband as part of her wedding vows, agreeing instead to treat him as an equal.” Her husband like other men disagreed with the notion of female suffrage. Since they were busy they lived often apart from each other. Their marriage which lasted for forty-seven years, ended with Henry's death in 1887. “In 1847, because of New England winters effect on Henry Stanton's fragile health, the Stanton moved from Boston to Seneca Falls, New York, situated at the northern end of Cayuga Lake, one of the Finger Lakes found in upstate New York. Their house, purchased for them by Daniel Cady, was located some distance from town. The couple's last four children, two sons and two daughters, were born there, with Stanton asserting that her children were conceived under a program she called "voluntary motherhood," asserting her firm belief that women should have command over their sexuality and childbearing. As a mother who advocated homeopathy, freedom of expression, lots of outdoor activity, and a solid, highly academic education for all of her children, Stanton nurtured a breadth of interests, activities, and learning in both her sons and daughters. She was remembered by her daughter Margaret as being "cheerful, sunny and indulgent".” Early activism in the Women's Rights Movement “Before living in Seneca Falls, Stanton had become a great admirer and friend of Lucretia Mott, the Quaker minister, feminist, and abolitionist whom she had met at the International Anti-Slavery Convention in London, England in the spring of 1840 while on her honeymoon. The two women became allies when the male delegates attending the convention voted that women should be denied participation in the proceedings, even if they, like Mott, had been nominated to serve as official delegates of their respective abolitionist societies. After considerable debate, the women were required to sit in a roped-off section hidden from the view of the men in attendance. They were soon joined by the prominent abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison, who arrived after the vote had been taken and, in protest of the outcome, refused his seat, electing instead to sit with the women.” “By 1848, her early life experiences, together with the experience in London and her initially debilitating experience as a housewife in Seneca Falls, galvanized Stanton. She later wrote: "The general discontent I felt with woman's portion as wife, housekeeper, physician, and spiritual guide, the chaotic conditions into which everything fell without her constant supervision, and the wearied, anxious look of the majority of women, impressed me with a strong feeling that some active measures should be taken to remedy the wrongs of society in general, and of women in particular. My experience at the World Anti-slavery Convention, all I had read of the legal status of women, and the oppression I saw everywhere, together swept across my soul, intensified now by many personal experiences. It seemed as if all the elements had conspired to impel me to some onward step. I could not see what to do or where to begin -- my only thought was a public meeting for protest and discussion." In 1848, Stanton joined Mott and a handful of other women in Seneca Falls. “Together they organized the first women's rights convention held in Seneca Falls on July 19 and 20. Stanton drafted a Declaration of Sentiments, which she read at the convention. Modeled on the United States Declaration of Independence, Stanton's declaration proclaimed that men and women are created equal. She proposed, among other things, a then-controversial resolution demanding voting rights for women. The final resolutions, including female suffrage, were passed, in no small measure, because of the support of Frederick Douglass, who attended and informally spoke at the convention. Soon after the convention, Stanton was invited to speak at a second women's rights convention in Rochester, New York, solidifying her role as an activist and reformer. In 1851, Stanton was introduced to Susan B. Anthony on a street in Seneca Falls by Amelia Bloomer, a feminist and mutual acquaintance who had not signed the Declaration of Sentiments and subsequent resolutions despite her attendance at the Seneca Falls convention. Although best known for their joint work on behalf of women's suffrage, Stanton and Anthony first joined the temperance movement.” Later years “Stanton maintained a broad focus on women's rights in general rather than narrowing her focus only to female suffrage in particular. After passage of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 and its support by the Equal Rights Association and prominent suffragists such as Stone, Blackwell, and Howe, the gap between Elizabeth Cady Stanton and other leaders of the women's movement widened as Stanton took issue with the fundamental religious leanings of several movement leaders. Stanton went on to write many of the more important books, documents, and speeches of the women's rights movement. In 1881, Harper & Brothers Publishers issued the first volume of The History of Woman Suffrage, a seminal, six-volume work containing the full history, documents, and letters of the woman's suffrage movement.[ While Stanton, along with Anthony and Gage, wrote the first three volumes. Stanton’s other major writings included The Women's Bible, Eighty Years & More: Reminiscences 1815-1897, her autobiography, published in 1898; and The Solitude of Self, or "Self-Sovereignty.In 1868 Stanton—together with Susan B. Anthony and Parker Pillsbury began publishing a weekly periodical, Revolution, with editorials by Stanton that focused on a wide array of women's issues”. “Stanton died at her home in New York City on October 26, 1902 nearly twenty years before women were granted the right to vote in the United States. Survived by six of her seven children and by seven grandchildren, she was interred in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York. After Stanton's death, her radical ideas about religion and emphasis on female employment and other women's issues led many suffragists to focus on Anthony, rather than Stanton, as the founder of the women's suffrage movement. Because of her ongoing involvement in the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), Anthony was more familiar to many of the younger members of the movement.[85] By 1923, in celebrating the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention, only Harriot Stanton Blatch paid tribute to the role her mother had played in instigating the women's rights movement.[86] Even as late as 1977, attention was paid to Susan B. Anthony as the founder of the movement, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton was not mentioned.” (All these information are taken from Wikipedia)
Reaganite Realism should Guide Foreign policy
Reaganite Realism should Guide Foreign policy
This article which is written by Richard V Alien (Reagan’s national security advisor) emphasizes on Reagan policies toward US strategic problems and compares these policies with Bush’s. Most important theory during Cold War which Reagan believed in was “we win, they lose”. This theory might seem very simple but this refers to Reagan’s capacity to explain solution in an understandable terms and his willingness to use others’ idea however he had fixed and defined principles. Reagan believed that man can do whatever he wants and there is no limitation for him, but contrary Reagan did not believe that the use of military power and overt force could resolve every problem, particularly the strategic problems.
If consider Bush and Reagan characteristics and policies we find some differences and similarities:
Most highlighted difference between them is that Reagan paid much more attention to public will and tried to explain to people and get their consensus which Bush Administration lacks.
Reagan policies more focused on practicing diplomatic efforts rather than just military action.
As before mentioned Reagan was eager to listen to others advises and criticism. He had bipartisan approach to domestic and foreign challenges unlike Bush who do not welcome criticism and advises and do not change his war. Reagan was a “Great Communicator”.Regarding similarity between them there is a lot of Reagan in George Bush and Bush enthusiasts in 2000 and 2004 events. So Reagan would have struck at the Taliban in Afghanistan too.
